Preface
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We catalog the breadth and severity of the suffering and injustices chickens are forced to endure at the hands of humans and also include slaughter counts and ages at slaughter.
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Summary
A concise summary of the briefing (see below for citations).
Chickens are sentient beings capable of suffering, yet they endure systemic injustices in farming practices despite humans having no nutritional need for meat. They face extreme overcrowding, confinement, unsanitary conditions, debeaking, rough handling, and debilitating breeding practices, which cause pain and stress, and prevent natural behaviors. Annually, billions of male chicks in hen hatcheries are exterminated shortly after hatching. Despite claims of humane treatment, their lives are marked by suffering and early, violent deaths.
Context
Places this topic in its larger context.
The injustices inherent in exploiting non-human animals stem from seeing them as commodities having only instrumental value, lacking any inherent worth apart from their usefulness to humans.
Key Points
This section provides talking points.
Loss of life is an injustice even if done suddenly and painlessly (which it is not).
To take the life of any sentient being is to harm that being by depriving them of opportunities for fulfillment, even if it is done suddenly and painlessly.
We have no nutritional need for any animal product, so denying chickens their lives is unnecessary, as are the other forms of suffering.
Chickens, like all farmed animals, are allowed to live just a small fraction of their natural lifespans.1
- Laying hens are slaughtered after about 18 months, living less than 20 percent of an 8-year natural lifespan.2
- Chickens used for meat are slaughtered at about 5 to 7 weeks, after living less than 2 percent of an 8-year natural lifespan.3
- Males from laying hens are slaughtered soon after hatching because they can’t lay eggs. Traditionally, they are ground with steel blades.4
The methods of slaughter for chickens are violent and painful.
Several methods of killing chickens are used, including manual throat slitting, neck-breaking, decapitation, and gassing, all of which are painful.
In the United States, where there are no federal regulations for chicken welfare, the industry claims that 99 percent of the birds are “totally unconscious” after an electrical stun, administered in some facilities just before slaughter.5
A study published in The Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science revealed that the chicken industry uses low-voltage stuns in order to avoid damage that might render the carcass unsellable. The low voltage stuns are not effective, which results in many (if not most) chickens being alive and fully conscious when their throat is slit, and many remain alive as they enter the scalding tank.6 7 8
In a violent extermination procedure euphemistically called “culling,” male chicks from laying hens are killed shortly after hatching.
Because laying hens are bred specifically to lay eggs, males hatched from laying hens are not profitable—they don’t yield sufficient meat, and they can’t lay eggs.9
Because the males hatched from laying hens are not profitable, the males are ground alive in a macerator, gassed, or suffocated—all shortly after they hatch.10
The chicken industry refers to the practice of killing newly hatched males as chick culling (weak and struggling females are also discarded in this manner).11
Hatchlings are about 50 percent male and 50 percent female. So statistically speaking, every laying hen has a brother who has been violently slaughtered. This is true even for backyard chickens, as the female hatchlings are sold not only to commercial producers but also to individuals keeping backyard chickens.
In the United States, around 260 million male chicks are slaughtered annually via culling.12 Worldwide, it’s around 7 billion.13
Extra: Lack of progress on the elimination of culling
In June 2016, United Egg Producers (UEP), who claim to be responsible for 95 percent of egg production in the United States, issued a vague statement about supporting research to end the practice of culling.14
At the time this was written, we found no evidence that culling had been eliminated except for one exception in Germany, where only one grocery store chain is selling eggs from hatcheries where males have not been slaughtered.15
Chickens are subjected to overcrowding and confinement.
Extreme crowding is the reality for the 98 percent of chickens living in factory farming conditions, regardless of whether they are in battery cages or not.16
Hens in battery cages spend their lives confined to a space smaller than the size of a standard sheet of paper.17
Chickens in commercial chicken houses may not be confined to a cage, but they are still entrapped by the mass of other chickens surrounding them, which is why Consumer Reports advises you to “ignore cage-free claims.”18
Despite failed and weak legislation at the federal and state levels,19 and despite the trend for producers and grocers to promise to go cage-free,20 in the United States up to 95% of eggs are produced by chickens housed in battery cages.21
Chickens are denied natural behaviors such as preening, roosting, perching, and spreading their wings.
Crowding prevents or hinders chickens’ ability to engage in their natural behaviors of preening, roosting, perching, spreading their wings, establishing social order, pecking and scratching for food, and teaching their young to peck and scratch for food.22
The denial of natural behaviors due to living in such close quarters results not only in discomfort but also the constant psychological stress of fear and anxiety.232425
Chickens often live in filth and stench.
The ammonia-laden air in the chicken houses is so noxious that the birds commonly suffer respiratory disorders, severe flesh and eye burns, and even blindness.26
Videos and investigations document the filth and stench of urine, feces, feathers, and dander in chicken facilities. They show birds covered in feces and so weak that they cannot clean themselves. Some are stuck in manure so deep it could be described as a manure pit.2728
Chickens commonly suffer from sickness and disease.
Numerous research papers and undercover investigation videos show that:2930313233
- Sickness and disease are common.
- Some chickens are so sick you can hear them struggling to breathe.
- Some hens don’t have the strength to stand on their own two legs.
- Some are barely able to move or respond to anything around them.
- Birds are found dead, dying, and emaciated.
The selective breeding of chickens is debilitating.
Laying Hens
- A laying hen produces more than 300 eggs a year, but the jungle fowl from which they are bred lay fewer than 10 eggs in a year. This causes both physical and psychological stress.34
- The large increase in the number of eggs laid is from a combination of selective breeding and hens’ tendency to lay more eggs when eggs are removed so they can follow their instinct to form a proper brood.35
- Laying hens are also bred to lay large eggs for which they have not naturally evolved, which stresses their reproductive system and causes such problems as osteoporosis, bone breakage, and uterus prolapse.36
Broiler Chickens
The modern broiler chicken is unnaturally large and has been bred to grow at an unnaturally fast rate and have large breasts.37
The selective breeding of broiler chickens comes with serious welfare consequences, including:38
- leg disorders
- skeletal, developmental, and degenerative diseases
- heart and lung problems
- breathing difficulty
- premature sudden death
Chickens are commonly debeaked, causing pain, lasting suffering, and prevention of natural behaviors.
The debeaking of chickens:39
- is painful
- causes lasting suffering
- impairs feeding
- eliminates exploratory pecking
- contributes to lice from impaired preening
Chickens are subjected to rough handling and transport.
When chickens raised for meat reach their desired slaughter weight, they are caught, crated, transported, unloaded, and placed in holding pens until slaughter.40
Videos of chickens being transported or being prepared for transport show squawking birds being grabbed four at a time by their feet and roughly thrown or shoved into crowded crates, birds suffering dislocations and broken bones, wings and heads crushed in crates, birds dying from suffocation, hot and cold conditions, and birds unable to stand from exhaustion.41
A study published in Poultry Science reveals that in addition to the psychological stress of chickens being transported, it is not unusual for a chicken to experience dehydration, disease, injury, pain, and even death.42
Injuries from rough handling and transport of chickens include wing and leg fractures, lesions, bleeding, and bruising.43
Counterclaims
Responses to some yes but retorts.
Claim: I only eat chickens and buy eggs from humane facilities.
The production of meat, dairy, and eggs all result in violent slaughter, and all involve other systemic cruelties. This is true no matter what humane-sounding labels are attached to the packaged body parts and reproduction-related secretions that we buy at the grocery store.
This is well-documented in dozens of undercover investigations, as well as sites such as:
Even if farmed animals were treated humanely, which they are not, by slaughtering them while they are young we are denying them opportunities for fulfillment during what would be the rest of their lives.
Supplementary Info
Additional information that may prove useful.
Ninety-eight percent of chickens in the United States are raised on factory farms.
Ninety-eight percent of chickens in the United States are raised in factory farming conditions.44
- The Sentience Institute used USDA data to calculate the number of chickens raised on factory farms.45
Globally, over 75 billion chickens are slaughtered annually for meat, and another 5 billion egg-laying hens are slaughtered.
Globally, over 75 billion chickens are slaughtered annually for meat.46
Globally, over 5 billion laying hens are slaughtered annually. See below for calculation.
Calculation Details
In the United States, over 9.5 billion chickens are slaughtered annually for meat, and another 300 million egg-laying hens are slaughtered.
In the United States, over 9.5 billion are slaughtered annually for meat.49
In the United States, around 300 million laying hens are slaughtered when their female reproductive systems are used up and they are no longer profitable, or died for some other reason.50
Over a 60-year period in the United States, the number of chickens has grown 1,400 percent while the number of producers has plummeted by 98 percent, resulting in a typical facility raising more than 600,000 chickens a year.
“In less than 60 years, the number of broiler chickens raised yearly has skyrocketed 1,400 percent, from 580 million in the 1950s to nearly nine billion today” (Pew Research).51
“Over the same [60 year] period, the number of producers has plummeted by 98 percent, from 1.6 million to just over 27,000 and concentrated in just 15 states” (Pew Research).52
“The size of individual operations has grown dramatically. Today, the typical broiler chicken comes from a facility that raises more than 600,000 birds a year” (Pew Research).53
Chickens raised for meat are typically slaughtered at 5 to 7 weeks, which is less than 2 percent of their 8-year natural lifespan.
Chickens raised for meat54
- Slaughter Age: 5-7 Weeks
- Natural Lifespan: 8 Years
- % of Life Lived: < 1.68%
Chickens raised for eggs are typically slaughtered at 18 months, which is less than 19 percent of their 8-year natural lifespan.
Chickens raised for eggs55
- Slaughter Age: 18 Months
- Natural Lifespan: 8 Years
- % of Life Lived: < 19%
Other Information
Lineage
Domesticated chickens used for meat and eggs are likely descended from the red jungle fowl of Southeast Asia.56
More recent research paints a more complex picture—birds from India, Cambodia, Ceylon, and other areas may also be involved in the lineage.57
Chickens were used widely in Southeast Asia, India, and Tibet and were a common fixture in ancient Greece.58
Their exploitation in the West spread from Greece to Rome and then on to Europe and the Americas.59
Further Study
Sources providing a deeper understanding of the topic or related topics.
Other Resources
Article: US Factory Farming Estimates, Sentience Institute
Article: Big Chicken: Pollution and Industrial Poultry Production in America, PEW Research
Article: How Egg Production Became a $200-Billion Industry, Sentient Media
Video: Costco Chicken Providers Exposed for Animal Cruelty, Now This News
Video: Undercover Footage Reveals Horrible Conditions of McDonald’s Chickens | NowThis
Video: DxE Investigators Expose ‘Humane’ Fraud at Whole Foods, DxE
Advocacy Resources
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Socratic Questions
Socratic-style questions are embedded in the Advocacy Notes below, and shown in italics.
These are open-ended, thought-provoking questions designed to encourage critical thinking, self-reflection, and deeper understanding. They are inspired by the Socratic method, a teaching technique attributed to the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, who would ask his students probing questions rather than directly providing answers.
The goal is to help people examine their beliefs, clarify their thoughts, uncover assumptions, and explore the evidence and reasoning behind their ideas.
Advocacy Notes
Tips for Advocacy and Outreach
General Tips
Your goal is to challenge assumptions, reveal the hidden realities of chicken farming, and make people see chickens as individuals who suffer immensely in the industry.
Have Them Acknowledge That Taking a Life Is an Injustice
People often focus only on how chickens are treated, not the fact that their lives are stolen from them unnecessarily. Shift the focus to the injustice of denying them their full lives.
- “If we don’t need to eat chickens to be healthy, what justifies taking their lives at all?”
- “A hen naturally lives around eight years, yet those raised for meat are killed at just five to seven weeks. How is it humane to take nearly 99% of their natural lifespan?”
Why? This moves the conversation away from just welfare concerns to the fundamental wrong of killing sentient beings needlessly.
Expose the Brutality of Chicken Slaughter
People assume chickens are killed quickly and painlessly, but common slaughter methods cause extreme suffering.
- “Low-voltage stunning used in chicken slaughter is often ineffective, meaning many birds are fully conscious when their throats are slit. If you were in that position, how humane would it feel?”
- “Some chickens miss the killing blade entirely and are scalded alive in boiling water. How does that fit the industry’s claim of ‘humane slaughter’?”
Why? This forces them to question whether “humane slaughter” is anything more than a marketing claim.
Reveal the Mass Killing of Male Chicks in the Egg Industry
Because male chicks can’t lay eggs and don’t grow fast enough for meat, they are killed immediately after hatching—a fact many people don’t know.
- “For every egg-laying hen, statistically speaking, there was a brother who was either ground alive or gassed as a newborn. How does that fit into the idea of ‘cruelty-free’ eggs?”
- “In the U.S. alone, around 260 million male chicks are killed each year just because they are ‘useless’ to the industry. What does that say about how chickens are valued?”
Why? This challenges any belief that eggs are more ethical than meat.
Challenge the Idea That “Cage-Free” Means Humane
Many people believe that buying cage-free eggs or “free-range” chicken means they are supporting humane treatment. Reveal why this is false.
- “If cage-free hens still live packed so tightly that they trample each other and can barely move, what difference does the lack of a cage really make?”
- “Even in cage-free systems, hens are still slaughtered young and male chicks are still killed. So how does this solve the problem?”
Why? This dismantles the illusion that better-sounding labels mean better lives for chickens.
Show How Chickens Are Denied Their Natural Behaviors
Chickens have complex instincts, yet they are deprived of nearly everything natural to them.
- “A chicken’s natural life includes dust bathing, perching, and raising their young. When they’re crammed into dark, filthy sheds with thousands of others, how much of that life is left?”
- “Hens instinctively want to teach their chicks how to forage, but in the egg industry, they never even get to see their babies. What does that say about the so-called humane treatment of farmed chickens?”
Why? This makes them see chickens as individuals with needs, rather than just food sources.
Highlight the Filth and Disease in Chicken Farms
People picture clean, well-managed farms, but the reality is filthy, disease-ridden environments.
- “Ammonia-filled air burns chickens’ lungs and eyes, sometimes blinding them. If a dog were kept in those conditions, would it be called humane?”
- “Chickens are often found covered in feces, some too weak to stand. When the reality looks like this, how can anyone call it humane farming?”
Why? This exposes the industry’s disregard for animal welfare even before slaughter.
Explain That Chickens Suffer from Genetic Manipulation
Selective breeding has severely harmed chickens, forcing them into unnatural and painful bodies.
- “Chickens raised for meat grow so unnaturally fast that their bones can’t support their weight, causing pain and even heart failure. If an animal is bred in a way that makes their own body a source of suffering, how can we justify it?”
- “A wild chicken lays around ten eggs a year, yet modern hens are forced to lay over 300. What kind of toll do you think that takes on their bodies?”
Why? This challenges the idea that chickens are naturally suited for industrial farming.
Address the Suffering Caused by Debeaking
Chickens have their beaks cut without pain relief, a fact many people don’t know.
- “If a chicken uses their beak like we use our hands, what does it mean when we slice part of it off?”
- “Debeaking is done to prevent hens from pecking each other, yet the reason they peck is the stress of overcrowding. Why not fix the conditions instead of mutilating the birds?”
Why? This makes them see debeaking as a symptom of a broken system rather than a necessity.
Reveal the Suffering of Transport and Rough Handling
The suffering of chickens doesn’t end until the moment they are killed.
- “Workers grab chickens by the legs, shove them into crates, and toss them onto trucks. If someone treated a dog that way, would they be charged with cruelty?”
- “Many chickens arrive at the slaughterhouse with broken bones from rough handling. If their suffering mattered, wouldn’t the industry care about that?”
Why? This dismantles any belief that chickens are treated with care before slaughter.
Leave Them With a Thought-Provoking Question
If they resist, don’t argue—leave them with something to consider.
- “When every part of the industry—from hatcheries to slaughterhouses—causes suffering, is there really such a thing as humane chicken farming?”
- “If chickens were treated this way but they were cats or dogs, would we still find it acceptable?”
Why? A strong question stays with them long after the conversation ends.
Footnotes
Our sources, with links back to where they are used.
- “Age of Animals Slaughtered,” Farm Transparency Project, December 2020 ↩︎
- “Age of Animals Slaughtered,” Farm Transparency Project, October 12, 2017 ↩︎
- “Age of Animals Slaughtered,” Farm Transparency Project, October 12, 2017 ↩︎
- What Happens with Male Chicks in the Egg Industry? – RSPCA Knowledgebase.” ↩︎
- National Chicken Council Brief on Stunning of Chickens.” The National Chicken Council (February 8, 2013. ↩︎
- Shields, Sara J., and A. B. M. Raj. “A Critical Review of Electrical Water-Bath Stun Systems for Poultry Slaughter and Recent Developments in Alternative Technologies.” Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science13, no. 4 (September 17, 2010): 281–99. ↩︎
- Pitney, Nico. “Scientists Believe The Chickens We Eat Are Being Slaughtered While Conscious.” HuffPost, 24:58 400AD. ↩︎
- Welfare at Slaughter of Broiler Chickens: A Review.” Accessed June 12, 2019. ↩︎
- What Happens with Male Chicks in the Egg Industry? – RSPCA Knowledgebase.” Accessed June 10, 2019. ↩︎
- “Chick Culling.” Wikipedia, 19 Feb. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chick_culling. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025.ers, 2015. ↩︎
- What Happens with Male Chicks in the Egg Industry? – RSPCA Knowledgebase.” Accessed June 10, 2019. ↩︎
- Davidson, Ollie. “The Killing of Newborn Chicks Is yet Another Cruel Egg Industry Practice.” LifeGate, 5 May 2021, www.lifegate.com/male-chick-culling-egg-industry-animal-equality. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025. ↩︎
- Communication, SCIENCE. “Researcher: Seven Billion Newly Hatched Chicks Are Killed Every Year – but a Ban Is Not the Solution.” Science.ku.dk, 21 Mar. 2024. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025. ↩︎
- United Egg Producers Statement on Eliminating Male Chick Culling.” UEP Certified (blog), June 10, 2016 ↩︎
- Daley, Jason. “A German Grocery Chain Is Selling First-Of-Its-Kind ‘No-Kill’ Eggs.” Smithsonian. Accessed June 10, 2019 ↩︎
- Sentience Institute. “US Factory Farming Estimates.” April 11, 2019. ↩︎
- Friedrich, Bruce, The Good Food Institute. “The Cruelest of All Factory Farm Products: Eggs From Caged Hens.” HuffPost, December 6, 2017 ↩︎
- Consumer Reports Greener Choices. “Cage-free on a package of chicken: Does It Add Value?” March 5, 2018 ↩︎
- A Decade Later, Another ‘Cage-Free’ Measure Is on the California Ballot.” Civil Eats, October 25, 2018. ↩︎
- Welfare Commitments, Cage-Free Commitments ↩︎
- How Egg Production Became a $200-Billion Industry, Sentient Media, October 17, 2022 ↩︎
- McCrea, Brigid, and Bethany Baker. “Common Backyard Chicken Behaviors.” Alabama Cooperative Extension System, 2 Nov. 2022. Accessed 10 Jan. 2025. ↩︎
- Eugen, Kaya von, Rebecca E. Nordquist, Elly Zeinstra, and Franz Josef van der Staay. “Stocking Density Affects Stress and Anxious Behavior in the Laying Hen Chick During Rearing.” Animals : An Open Access Journal from MDPI9, no. 2 (February 10, 2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9020053 ↩︎
- Marino, Lori. “Thinking Chickens: A Review of Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior in the Domestic Chicken.” Animal Cognition20, no. 2 (2017): 127–47. ↩︎
- Appleby, M.C. “What Causes Crowding? Effects of Space, Facilities and Group Size on Behavior, with Particular Reference to Furnished Cages for Hens.” Animal Welfare13 (August 1, 2004): 313–20. ↩︎
- Ammonia Toxicity in Chickens.” PoultryDVM. Accessed October 25, 2018 ↩︎
- Direct Action Everywhere. “Truth Matters: DxE Investigators Expose ‘Humane’ Fraud at Whole Foods.“, January 7, 2015 ↩︎
- NowThis, “Undercover Footage Reveals Horrible Conditions of McDonald’s Chickens” September 9, 2019 ↩︎
- Direct Action Everywhere. “Truth Matters: DxE Investigators Expose ‘Humane’ Fraud at Whole Foods.“, January 7 ↩︎
- NowThis, “Undercover Footage Reveals Horrible Conditions of McDonald’s Chickens” September 9, 2019 ↩︎
- Adams, A. W., and J. V. Craig. “Effect of Crowding and Cage Shape on Productivity and Profitability of Caged Layers: A Survey.” Poultry Science 64, no. 2 (February 1, 1985): 238–42. ↩︎
- Lawrence, Felicity. “If Consumers Knew How Farmed Chickens Were Raised, They Might Never Eat Their Meat Again.” The Observer, April 24, 2016, sec. Environment. ↩︎
- Diseases of Poultry | Mississippi State University Extension Service.” Accessed June 18, 2019 ↩︎
- Cheng, H.-W. “Breeding of Tomorrow’s Chickens to Improve Well-Being.” Poultry Science 89, no. 4 (April 1, 2010): 805–13 ↩︎
- Rutherford-Fortunati, Rutherford-Fortunati on. “Do Chickens Mourn the Loss of Their Eggs?” June 29, 2012 ↩︎
- Jamieson, Alastair. “Large Eggs Cause Pain and Stress to Hens, Shoppers Are Told,” March 11, 2009, sec. Finance ↩︎
- Stevenson, Peter. “Leg and Heart Problems in Broiler Chickens.” Compassion in World Farming, January 2003. ↩︎
- Stevenson, Peter. “Leg and Heart Problems in Broiler Chickens.” Compassion in World Farming, January 2003. ↩︎
- Welfare Implications of Beak Trimming.” American Veterinary Medical Association, February 7, 2010 ↩︎
- Chickens Suffer during Catching, Loading, and Transport.” Accessed June 12, 2019 ↩︎
- Chickens Suffer during Catching, Loading, and Transport.” Accessed June 12, 2019 ↩︎
- Jacobs, Leonie, Evelyne Delezie, Luc Duchateau, Klara Goethals, and Frank A. M. Tuyttens. “Impact of the Separate Pre-Slaughter Stages on Broiler Chicken Welfare ↩︎
- Jacobs, Leonie, Evelyne Delezie, Luc Duchateau, Klara Goethals, and Frank A. M. Tuyttens. “Impact of the Separate Pre-Slaughter Stages on Broiler Chicken Welfare ↩︎
- Institute, Sentience. “US Factory Farming Estimates.” Sentience Institute, April 11, 2019. ↩︎
- Institute, Sentience. “US Factory Farming Estimates.” Sentience Institute, April 11, 2019. ↩︎
- Obtained by an analysis of 2022 United Nations data by the Our World in Data group using their data explorer. To get to the 75 billion figure, clear all selections, choose “World,” “Animals Slaughtered,” and “Chickens.” ↩︎
- “Review of Global Egg Production 2023.” Compassioninfoodbusiness.com, 2023.. Accessed 10 Jan. 2025. ↩︎
- Symons, Angela. “Egg-Laying Hens Are Killed after Just 18 Months. This Charity Gives Them a Brighter Future.” Yahoo News, 2 Jan. 2024, uk.news.yahoo.com/dogs-feathers-could-next-pet-060017501.html. Accessed 10 Jan. 2025. ↩︎
- Obtained by an analysis of 2022 United Nations data by the Our World in Data group using their data explorer. To get to the 75 billion figure, clear all selections, choose “United States,” “Animals Slaughtered,” and “Chickens.” ↩︎
- The 294 million figure is obtained from the USDA report “Chicken and Eggs, 2023 Summary, page 16, by summing the “Layers Sold for Slaughter” column with the “Layers rendered, died, destroyed, composted, or disappeared for any reason (other than sold)” column. ↩︎
- Big Chicken: Pollution and Industrial Poultry Production in America.” Accessed July 6, 2019. ↩︎
- Big Chicken: Pollution and Industrial Poultry Production in America.” Accessed July 6, 2019. ↩︎
- Big Chicken: Pollution and Industrial Poultry Production in America.” Accessed July 6, 2019. ↩︎
- “Age of Animals Slaughtered.” Farm Transparency Project, October 12, 2017. ↩︎
- “Age of Animals Slaughtered.” Farm Transparency Project, October 12, 2017. ↩︎
- Smith, Page, and Charles Daniel. The Chicken Book. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000, 11-13. ↩︎
- Smith, Page, and Charles Daniel. The Chicken Book. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000, 11-13. ↩︎
- Smith, Page, and Charles Daniel. The Chicken Book. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000, 16-30. ↩︎
- Smith, Page, and Charles Daniel. The Chicken Book. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000, 16-30. ↩︎
