Preface
Briefing description and more.
We catalog the breadth and severity of the suffering and injustices farmed cows are forced to endure at the hands of humans and provide slaughter counts and slaughter age information.
Companion Videos
How to use companion videos
Videos may be posted on multiple social media platforms, and you can share them on each platform according each platform’s conventions.
Share this Briefing
Social Media Sharing Image
This image will be used when sharing the briefing on a social media platform. You can see all social sharing images in the grid view.
How to share this briefing
Click on the icon for the platform on which you wish to share. What happens next depends on the platform, but generally a popup will appear, letting you add your own text as you share.
Briefing Meta
Metrics
Additional media and advocacy resources are on the way, though not every briefing will feature every type of media.
| Text: | |
| Key Points | 11 |
| Counterclaims | 1 |
| Advocacy Notes | 0 |
| Footnotes | 115 |
| Media: | |
| Companion Videos | 0 |
| Memes and Infographics | 0 |
| Presentation Slides | 0 |
| Flash Cards | 0 |
Other Meta
Date Posted:
Last Edited:
Contributors
Help Us Improve
Please send your suggestions for improvements, or report any issues with this briefing to team@vbriefings.org
We appreciate that you are taking the time to help up improve. All suggestions and reports will be carefully considered.
Summary
A concise summary of the briefing (see below for citations).
The exploitation of cows for their meat and dairy products involves extensive and unnecessary suffering at every stage of their lives, regardless of humane-sounding labels. Numerous undercover investigations confirm these inhumane practices even at facilities that use humane labeling.
The exploitation of non-human animals is deeply rooted in viewing them as commodities with only instrumental value, lacking inherent worth apart from their usefulness to humans. This mindset leads to numerous injustices and suffering for cows.
Taking the life of any sentient being, even painlessly, deprives them of opportunities for fulfillment. Humans do not need animal products for nutrition, making the injustices and suffering unnecessary.
Globally, over 350 million cows are slaughtered annually for meat, while another 280 million dairy cows are also slaughtered each year.
In the United States, more than 32 million cows are slaughtered annually for meat, with an additional 9 million dairy cows being slaughtered. Seventy percent are factory farmed.
Cows raised for meat are typically slaughtered at 18 months, which is less than 8% of their natural 15 to 20-year lifespan. Dairy cows are usually slaughtered at 4 years old, representing around 20% of their natural lifespan.
Despite the Humane Slaughter Act, cows are often conscious during slaughter due to fast line speeds and inadequate stunning, resulting in cows being butchered while still alive. Regulatory enforcement is weak, and violations are seldom addressed.
Common practices such as dehorning, disbudding, castration, and branding cause significant pain and distress to cows. These procedures are usually performed without anesthetics, leading to prolonged suffering and increased risk of infection.
Living conditions in feedlots and industrial farms are harsh, with cows standing in waste and suffering from respiratory problems due to poor air quality.
Dairy cows endure a cycle of artificial insemination, separation from offspring, and mechanical milking, leading to physical strain and metabolic diseases. They are often denied nurturing, social behaviors, and subjected to artificial insemination and invasive semen collection methods. Male calves, being useless to the dairy industry, are either cruelly raised for veal or shot at birth.
Cows suffer from various health issues like mastitis, lameness, and downer cow syndrome. Mastitis causes persistent inflammation and pain in the udder, while lameness is common due to their large udders and poor living conditions.
Downer cows, unable to stand, face cruel treatment in slaughterhouses. Transport conditions are equally harsh, with cows beaten, kicked, and subjected to extreme weather without access to food or water.
Context
Places this topic in its larger context.
Note: We use the word “cow” to mean both male and female of the species, unless used with a gender-revealing adjective.
The injustices inherent in exploiting non-human animals stem from seeing them as commodities having only instrumental value, lacking any inherent worth apart from their usefulness to humans.
Key Points
This section provides talking points.
Loss of life is an injustice even if done suddenly and painlessly (which it is not).
To take the life of any sentient being is to harm that being by depriving them of opportunities for fulfillment, even if it is done suddenly and painlessly.
We have no nutritional need for meat or dairy (or any animal product) so denying cows their lives is unnecessary, as are the other forms of suffering inflicted on farmed cows.
Cows, like all farmed animals,1 are allowed to live just a small fraction of their natural lifespan.
Dairy cows are slaughtered at around 4 years old, after living less than 30 percent of a 15 to 20-year natural lifespan.2
Cows used for beef are slaughtered at around 18 months old, after living less than 10 percent of a 15-20-year natural lifespan.3
Despite the Humane Slaughter Act, cows are often conscious when butchering begins.
According to the Humane Slaughter Act in the U.S., cows are required to be rendered insensible before slaughter.4
Fast line speeds and poorly trained workers mean that animals are often improperly stunned and still conscious when their throats are slit. (Investigative report, Washington Post)5
Workers have reported cows blinking and looking around when they are supposed to be dead. (Investigative report, Washington Post)6
Some cows have their limbs cut off and even their hides removed while fully conscious. (Investigative report, Washington Post)7
The butchering of conscious cows happens daily all over the U.S. according to a former chief government inspector at a Pennsylvania hamburger plant (Investigative report, Washington Post).8
When slaughter plants in the United States are caught violating laws, action is rarely taken. (Investigative report, Washington Post)9
U.S. workers have been fired for reporting violations (Investigative report, Washington Post).10
USDA inspectors, who are responsible for enforcing humane slaughter standards, complain that they have little access to the kill floor and do not receive support from plant supervisors (Investigative report, Washington Post).11
Cows are routinely subjected to mutilations, including dehorning, disbudding, castration, and branding.
Dehorning.
Ninety-four percent of dairy calves are dehorned as of 2007, according to the USDA.12
Dehorning is not regulated in the United States.13
Cows and calves (including females) have their horns removed to prevent them from injuring people or other animals.14
This process involves cutting through bone and horn tissue with either a wire, a saw, or a mechanical gouger.15
According to Temple Grandin, who is recognized as an expert in livestock handling, it is very stressful and “the single most painful thing we do.” She stresses that an anesthetic should always be used,16 although in practice it is usually not used.17
Calves may be in pain for several hours — if not longer — following the procedure.18
When done on adult cows, it increases their risk of infection, sinusitis, and prolonged wound healing.19
Disbudding
In calves under two months of age, the horns have not yet attached to the skull. When the procedure is carried out at this stage, it is called “disbudding.”20
Disbudding is not regulated in the United States.21
Disbudding is usually done with either a hot iron or caustic paste.22
In one survey, almost half of farmers said that calves appeared to be in pain for more than a few minutes after disbudding.23
Wounds from hot iron disbudding may still be sensitive 75 hours later.24
Some farmers selectively breed for “polled” cows, meaning those without horns. However, this is far from widespread, and dehorning and disbudding procedures are still common.25
Castration
As an indication of the prevalence of castration, one analysis found that 95 percent of feedlots contained castrated males.26
Castration is performed to reduce aggression and prevent reproduction.27
Castration may be carried out physically, chemically, or hormonally, though physical methods are most typical.28
A survey of bovine veterinarians revealed that while some practitioners do employ pain relief strategies during castration, the overall prevalence remains low, with only about 20% reporting the use of analgesic or anesthetic agents.29
Studies show that the most common methods of physical castration (rubber ring, Burdizzo, and surgery) cause acute pain.30
Evidence of castration causing pain include behaviors such as struggling, kicking, foot stamping, restlessness, reduced food intake, and lying down more than usual.31
Branding
Over 20 percent of cows in the US were branded in 2007-8, the latest years for which data is available at the time of writing.32
Cows are often branded with hot irons as a method of identification.33
During the branding process, cows show symptoms such as kicking, tail flicking, vocalizations, and falling down, indicating that it is painful.34
The resulting wound from branding likely remains painful for at least eight weeks.35
Cows are often forced into horrid living conditions, including standing in their own waste.
Feedlots
Beef cows are usually born in the winter or spring and raised on pasture for the first seven months of their lives.36
In the fall, cows may be sent to feedlots.37 This can involve cows being transported for hundreds of miles.38
On feedlots, thousands of cows are crammed into and made to stand in small pens that quickly fill up with waste.39 The aim is to fatten them up quickly, so they are fed an unnatural grain-based diet that makes them extremely bloated.
The bloating of cows on feedlots can be so extreme that it compresses the lungs, impairing breathing and sometimes even causing death. It can also cause liver abscesses.40
The huge amounts of manure on feedlots emit gases like methane and ammonia, which may give cows chronic respiratory problems.41
Cows are also given antibiotics to make them grow faster and stave off disease in their filthy conditions.42
Industrial Farms
The life of a dairy cow is particularly egregious because the cycle of artificial insemination, separation from offspring, and mechanical milking repeat for 4 or 5 years until she is slaughtered, often for cheap meat.434445
An undercover investigation has shown dairy cows forced to stand knee-deep in waste on concrete floors.46
An undercover investigation video has shown cows with swollen or ulcerated leg joints and huge swellings oozing pus and blood.47
An undercover investigation determined that cows were not given veterinary care and some were found lying dead in manure.48
Despite being herbivores, many cows are fed unnatural diets that include fish and chicken feathers. This is because high-protein diets increase their milk production.49
By the time cows are 4 years old, they are no longer productive and are sent to slaughter. Their natural lifespan is about 15-20 years.50
Dairy cows are milked by machines, contributing to discomfort and mastitis.
Cows on factory farms are milked by machines rather than by hand. Machine milking usually takes place two to three times a day and lasts 5-7 minutes each time.51
Machine milking of cows is harmful and uncomfortable. Teats often become swollen after milking and may become callused when it is done regularly.52
Changes in the skin of the cow’s teats from mechanical milking make it easier for bacteria to penetrate, increasing the cow’s risk of mastitis (discussed later on).
Automated milking machines allow cows to be milked more frequently, meaning there is less recovery time.53
Selective breeding in dairy cows strains their bodies, resulting in metabolic diseases.
Modern dairy cows have been selectively bred to produce much more milk than their ancestors, which is difficult for their bodies to sustain. As a result, they may become deficient in nutrients such as calcium, causing milk fever.54
Because of the huge demands placed on dairy cows’ bodies by increased milk production, they often cannot eat enough food to sustain themselves. As a result, many develop metabolic diseases such as milk fever (discussed above), ketosis, and fatty liver syndrome.55
Cows are denied nurturing, sex, and other social behaviors.
Nurturing and Being Nurtured
In the dairy industry, calves are usually taken from their mothers almost immediately after birth. This is very upsetting for both mother and calf. Mother cows have strong maternal instincts and often call for their calves for hours or even days after separation.56
Footage shows baby cows separated from their mothers.57
Calves are often kept in isolation for at least a few weeks after birth, and will never be nurtured by their mothers.58
Calf isolation has long-term effects. Calves separated from their mothers cope worse with stress than those allowed to remain with them.59
Sex
Cows are typically not permitted to reproduce naturally. Instead, females are artificially impregnated without their consent60 (described below), while most males are castrated (discussed above).61
Social Behaviours
Cows on dairy farms are sometimes kept in isolation. This is a stressful experience as they are not able to carry out natural behaviors like grooming.62
Attempts to reduce cows’ stress with automated grooming brushes have proved unsuccessful.63
Cows have “best friends” and become stressed when separated from them.64
Artificial insemination via forced penetration, along with invasive semen collection, are common industry practices for cows.
Artificial Insemination
Approximately 78 percent of dairy cows in the United States are impregnated by artificial insemination,65 and less than 10 percent of meat cows are impregnated by artificial insemination.66
Worldwide, approximately 20 percent of cows are impregnated by artificial insemination.67
The artificial insemination procedure calls for an entire human arm to be inserted into the cow’s anus to guide the semen injection gun which is inserted through the cow’s vulva,68 described below, while most males are castrated.69
Semen Collection
To artificially inseminate a cow, semen must be collected. The two main ways to collect semen are by using a teaser bull and by electroejaculation.
Teaser Bull Method of Semen Collection
During the teaser bull method of semen collection, a “donor” bull is manipulated into becoming aroused and mounting the teaser bull, who is usually a male.70 also known as a “loving cup” by the industry.71
During the teaser bull method of semen collection, semen is collected in an artificial vagina,72 also known as a “loving cup” by the industry.73
Electroejaculation Semen Collection
The electroejaculation method is normally used with bulls who can’t be easily handled or aren’t capable of mounting.74
The electroejaculation method involves placing an electric probe into a bull’s rectum and slowly increasing the setting until the bull ejaculates. The process is painful and distressing, and no pain relief is given.75
During the electroejaculation procedure, bulls sometimes collapse before they ejaculate.76
Male calves born to dairy cows are either cruelly raised for veal or shot at birth.
Male calves born to dairy cows are useless to the industry as they cannot produce milk, and they have not been bred for meat. So they are either:
Veal
Veal calves are often fed milk substitutes that are deficient in iron because pale veal is considered more desirable.79
Veal calves are kept in confined spaces where movement is severely limited, and this restriction becomes more pronounced as they grow larger.80
Shot at Birth
The popularity of veal has declined in recent years,81 partially due to animal welfare concerns.82
Because of the declining popularity of veal, many male dairy calves are now shot shortly after birth. In 2018, an investigation carried out by the Guardian (“Dairy’s ‘dirty secret’: it’s still cheaper to kill male calves than to rear them)” revealed that 95,000 male calves per year are slaughtered at birth in the UK alone.83
In the process of shipping, cows may be beaten, kicked, shocked, subjected to hot or freezing temperatures, required to stand or sit in their own waste, and may travel for up to 28 hours without water or food.
When cows arrive at slaughterhouses, cows who are too sick or frightened to get off the truck may be beaten, kicked, shot, or shocked with electric prods.84
An investigation has shown cows on factory farms being beaten, including in sensitive areas like their udders.85
Cows are often transported for hours or even days to reach slaughterhouses. They usually have no access to food or water and are subject to extreme weather conditions. Legally, they can be transported in this way for up to 28 hours at a time.86
Cows are transported as far as 1,500 miles with up to 45 cows crammed into each trailer. Trailers are open and in winter cows’ hooves may freeze to the urine and manure. Those who are unable to stand have no choice but to lie in the waste.87
Cows commonly suffer from mastitis, lameness, downer cow syndrome, enlarged udders, and bacterial infections.
Mastitis
Mastitis is an infectious disease involving the persistent inflammation of a cow’s udder tissue.
Mastitis is common on modern factory farms — a USDA report found that 24.8 percent of dairy cows in the USA had the disease at some point in 2013. In a small number of cases, it was fatal.88
Mastitis causes pain and discomfort, especially as it makes it uncomfortable for cows to lie down.89
Downers
A downer cow is one who is unable to rise.
The euphemism for downer cow syndrome is “Bovine Secondary Recumbency.”90
There are a number of potential causes of downer cows, but one of the most common is “milk fever,” which occurs shortly after a cow gives birth.91
An analysis by a doctor of veterinary medicine revealed that nearly two-thirds of downed cows either die or are killed rather than recovering.92
Undercover investigations have documented cruel treatment of downer cows at slaughterhouses, including being dragged with chains, shocked with electric prods, rammed with forklift trucks, and sprayed with a hose to simulate drowning.93
An Animal Welfare Institute undercover investigator recorded workers moving downed cows with forklifts, sticking them repeatedly with electric prods, and spraying water down their noses to make them stand, allegedly to get them to slaughter.94
Lameness
Lameness is common in high-yielding dairy cows.95
The more milk a cow produces, the more prone she is to lameness.96
Counterclaims
Responses to some yes but retorts.
Claim: I only eat beef and buy dairy products from humane facilities.
The production of meat, dairy, and eggs all result in violent slaughter, and all involve other systemic cruelties. This is true no matter what humane-sounding labels are attached to the packaged body parts and reproduction-related secretions that we buy at the grocery store.
This is well-documented in dozens of undercover investigations, as well as sites such as:
Even if farmed animals were treated humanely, which they are not, by slaughtering them while they are young we are denying them opportunities for fulfillment during what would be the rest of their lives.
Supplementary Info
Additional information that may prove useful.
Seventy percent of cows in the United States are factory farmed.
Using data from the USDA Census of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Agency’s definition of concentrated animal feeding operations, the Sentience Institute determined that 70 percent of cows in the USA are factory-farmed97
Slaughter Counts
Globally, around 328 million cattle are slaughtered a year (based on 2021 United Nations data).98
In the United States, 32.8 million cattle are slaughtered annually, with about 3.1 million of those being dairy cows (USDA data from 2023).99
Cows raised for meat are typically slaughtered at 18 months, which is less than 8 percent of their 15 to 20-year natural lifespan.
Slaughter age of cows raised for meat.100
- Slaughter Age: 18 Months
- Natural Lifespan: 15-20 Years
- % of Life Lived: < 7.5%
Cows raised for dairy are typically slaughtered at 4 years, representing less than 20 percent of their 15 to 20-year lifespan.
Slaughter age of cows raised for dairy101
- Slaughter Age: 4 Years
- Natural Lifespan: 15-20 Years
- % of Life Lived: < 20%
Other Information
Terminology
Cow is often used generically to refer to male and female cattle, as it is at this website, but technically is “the mature female of cattle (genus Bos).102 The word can also used for females of other species, such as elephants and whales.
Cattle are “domesticated quadrupeds held as property or raised for use,” or more specifically “bovine animals on a farm or ranch.”103 We would use this word reluctantly because of its etymology from ”property.”104
Bovine is sometimes used as a synonym for cows, but zoologically means “any of a subfamily (Bovinae) of bovids including oxen, bison, buffalo, and their close relatives.”105
Calf refers to “the young of the domestic cow.” It is also used for the young of related species such as bison, as well as certain other mammals like whales and elephants.106
Livestock denotes “animals kept or raised for use or pleasure.” It is usually used for farm animals.107
Heifer refers to “a young cow / especially: one that has not had a calf.108
Steer usually means “a male bovine animal and especially a domestic ox (Bos taurus) castrated before sexual maturity.” It can also refer to “an ox less than four years old.”109
Bull means “a male bovine,” particularly an uncastrated adult. It is also used to refer to adult males of various other species, such as whales and elephants.110
Ox refers to “a domestic bovine mammal (Bos taurus),” or more broadly simply a bovine mammal. It is sometimes used to mean “an adult castrated male domestic ox.”111
Lineage
Cows were domesticated from the now-extinct aurochs (wild ox) at least twice, and possibly three times.112
In the near east, cows were domesticated about 10,500 years ago.113
Modern domestic cows are significantly smaller than their wild ancestors.114
Historically, cows have been used for meat, milk, leather, and transport.115
Further Study
Sources providing a deeper understanding of the topic or related topics.
Other Resources
None yet.
Advocacy Resources
Information to help with outreach and advocacy.
Additional media and advocacy resources are on the way, though not every briefing will feature every type of media.
Share This Briefing
Cloned from the Preface Section on page load.
Companion Videos
Cloned from the Preface Section on page load.
Memes and Infographics
No images found.
How to use Memes and Infographics
To sequence through all memes and infographics on this page, click on any image than use the arrow keys or the arrow buttons to show next and previous images.
To share a meme or infographic, right click on the image and choose download or save as. Then upload the image to the platform of choice.
Presentation Slides
Slides not available.
How to Use the Presentation Slides
You can view the slideshow full screen by clicking on the first link above.
To use Canva presenter mode, view the speaker notes, or download the slides as PowerPoint, login to Canva (the free account works) and follow the Full Canva Link provided above.
To copy this presentation to your own Canva project, use the Full Canva Link provided above, then select File->Make a Copy from the upper left. You can build your own unique presentation from multiple briefings by copying the presentation from each briefing and then building another presentation from the copied presentations.
Flash Cards
We partner with Brainscape because of their excellent features for learning. You will need to create a free Brainscape account to study the cards.
About Flash Cards and Brainscape
Flash cards are here to help you commit important facts and concepts in this briefing to memory.
In Brainscape, there is one deck for each briefing. You can study more than one deck at a time. Brainscape uses spaced repetition to promote memory retention. It is “the secret to learning more while studying less.”
You can study using your browser, but Brainscape also has a free mobile app that makes learning anywhere easy.
Advocacy Notes
Tips for Advocacy and Outreach
None provided.
Footnotes
Our sources, with links back to where they’re used.
- “Age of Animals Slaughtered.” Farm Transparency Project, October 12, 2017. ↩︎
- “Age of Animals Slaughtered,” Farm Transparency Project, October 12, 2017 ↩︎
- “Age of Animals Slaughtered,” Farm Transparency Project, October 12, 2017 ↩︎
- Humane Slaughter Act, Pub. L. No. 85–765, 862. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Warrick, Jo. “‘They Die Piece by Piece.’” Washington Post, April 10, 2001. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Warrick, Jo. “‘They Die Piece by Piece.’” Washington Post, April 10, 2001. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Warrick, Jo. “‘They Die Piece by Piece.’” Washington Post, April 10, 2001. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Warrick, Jo. “‘They Die Piece by Piece.’” Washington Post, April 10, 2001. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Warrick, Jo. “‘They Die Piece by Piece.’” Washington Post, April 10, 2001. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Warrick, Jo. “‘They Die Piece by Piece.’” Washington Post, April 10, 2001. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Warrick, Jo. “‘They Die Piece by Piece.’” Washington Post, April 10, 2001. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- “Changes in Dairy Cattle Health and Management Practices in the United States,1996-2007.” Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, July 2009. Accessed 3 December 2019 ↩︎
- “Changes in Dairy Cattle Health and Management Practices in the United States,1996-2007.” Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, July 2009. Accessed 3 December 2019 ↩︎
- “Changes in Dairy Cattle Health and Management Practices in the United States,1996-2007.” Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, July 2009. Accessed 3 December 2019 ↩︎
- Robbins, Ja, Dm Weary, Ca Schuppli, and Mag von Keyserlingk. “Stakeholder Views on Treating Pain Due to Dehorning Dairy Calves.” Animal Welfare 24, no. 4 (November 14, 2015): 399–406. Accessed December 3, 2019 ↩︎
- News, A. B. C. “Dehorning: ‘Standard Practice’ on Dairy Farms.” ABC News. Accessed December 3, 2019 ↩︎
- Robbins, Ja, Dm Weary, Ca Schuppli, and Mag von Keyserlingk. “Stakeholder Views on Treating Pain Due to Dehorning Dairy Calves.” Animal Welfare 24, no. 4 (November 14, 2015): 399–406. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Faulkner, P.M., and D.M. Weary. “Reducing Pain After Dehorning in Dairy Calves.” Journal of Dairy Science 83, no. 9 (September 2000): 2037–41. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- “Literature Review on the Welfare Implications of the Dehorning and Disbudding of Cattle.” American Veterinary Medical Association, July 15, 2014. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Robbins, Ja, Dm Weary, Ca Schuppli, and Mag von Keyserlingk. “Stakeholder Views on Treating Pain Due to Dehorning Dairy Calves.” Animal Welfare 24, no. 4 (November 14, 2015): 399–406. Accessed December 3, 2019 ↩︎
- Robbins, Ja, Dm Weary, Ca Schuppli, and Mag von Keyserlingk. “Stakeholder Views on Treating Pain Due to Dehorning Dairy Calves.” Animal Welfare 24, no. 4 (November 14, 2015): 399–406. Accessed December 3, 2019 ↩︎
- Robbins, Ja, Dm Weary, Ca Schuppli, and Mag von Keyserlingk. “Stakeholder Views on Treating Pain Due to Dehorning Dairy Calves.” Animal Welfare 24, no. 4 (November 14, 2015): 399–406. Accessed December 3, 2019 ↩︎
- “Literature Review on the Welfare Implications of the Dehorning and Disbudding of Cattle.” American Veterinary Medical Association, July 15, 2014. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Mintline, Erin M., Mairi Stewart, Andrea R. Rogers, Neil R. Cox, Gwyneth A. Verkerk, Joseph M. Stookey, James R. Webster, and Cassandra B. Tucker. “Play Behavior as an Indicator of Animal Welfare: Disbudding in Dairy Calves.” ”Applied Animal Behaviour Science” 144, no. 1–2 (February 2013): 22–30. Accessed December 3 2019. ↩︎
- Spurlock, D.M., M.L. Stock, and J.F. Coetzee. “The Impact of 3 Strategies for Incorporating Polled Genetics into a Dairy Cattle Breeding Program on the Overall Herd Genetic Merit.” Journal of Dairy Science 97, no. 8 (August 2014): 5265–74. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- This is based on 2022 data showing that only 5% of sales lots contained uncastrated males. Raper, Kellie. “No Bull! The Value of Castration for Calves.” Farmprogress.com, 2023. Accessed 7 Jan. 2025 ↩︎
- “Castration of Calves.” Accessed November 19, 2019. ↩︎
- “Castration of Calves.” Accessed November 19, 2019.
↩︎ - Webster, H.B., et al. “Effects of Local Anesthesia and Flunixin Meglumine on the Acute Cortisol Response, Behavior, and Performance of Young Dairy Calves Undergoing Surgical Castration.” Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 96, no. 10, Oct. 2013, pp. 6285–6300. Accessed Jan 7, 2025. ↩︎
- Robertson, I.S., J.E. Kent, and V. Molony. “Effect of Different Methods of Castration on Behaviour and Plasma Cortisol in Calves of Three Ages.” Research in Veterinary Science 56, no. 1 (January 1994): 8–17. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- “Literature Review on the Welfare Implications of Castration of Cattle .” American Veterinary Medical Association, July 15, 2014. Accessed December 3, 2019 ↩︎
- “Highlights of Beef 2007-08 Part I: Reference of Beef Cow-Calf Management Practices in the United States.” Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, August 2007. Accessed 3 December 2019. ↩︎
- “Highlights of Beef 2007-08 Part I: Reference of Beef Cow-Calf Management Practices in the United States.” Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, August 2007. Accessed 3 December 2019. ↩︎
- Schwartzkopf-Genswein, K S, J M Stookey, T G Crowe, and B M Genswein. “Comparison of Image Analysis, Exertion Force, and Behavior Measurements for Use in the Assessment of Beef Cattle Responses to Hot-Iron and Freeze Branding.” Journal of Animal Science 76, no. 4 (1998): 972. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Tucker, C. B., E. M. Mintline, J. Banuelos, K. A. Walker, B. Hoar, A. Varga, D. Drake, and D. M. Weary. “Pain Sensitivity and Healing of Hot-Iron Cattle Brands.” Journal of Animal Science 92, no. 12 (December 1, 2014): 5674–82. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- McGinn, S. M., T. K. Flesch, B. P. Crenna, K. A. Beauchemin, and T. Coates. “Quantifying Ammonia Emissions from a Cattle Feedlot Using a Dispersion Model.” Journal of Environment Quality 36, no. 6 (2007): 1585. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- McGinn, S. M., T. K. Flesch, B. P. Crenna, K. A. Beauchemin, and T. Coates. “Quantifying Ammonia Emissions from a Cattle Feedlot Using a Dispersion Model.” Journal of Environment Quality 36, no. 6 (2007): 1585. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- “Monthly Returns from Cattle Feeding.” Accessed November 28, 2019. ↩︎
- “Overview of Cattle Laws | Animal Legal & Historical Center.” Accessed November 28, 2019. ↩︎
- Galyean, M. L., and J. D. Rivera. “Nutritionally Related Disorders Affecting Feedlot Cattle.” Canadian Journal of Animal Science 83, no. 1 (March 2003): 13–20. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Haarlem, R. P. van, R. L. Desjardins, Z. Gao, T. K. Flesch, and X. Li. “Methane and Ammonia Emissions from a Beef Feedlot in Western Canada for a Twelve-Day Period in the Fall.” Canadian Journal of Animal Science 88, no. 4 (December 2008): 641–49. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- McEachran, Andrew D., Brett R. Blackwell, J. Delton Hanson, Kimberly J. Wooten, Gregory D. Mayer, Stephen B. Cox, and Philip N. Smith. “Antibiotics, Bacteria, and Antibiotic Resistance Genes: Aerial Transport from Cattle Feed Yards via Particulate Matter.” Environmental Health Perspectives 123, no. 4 (April 2015): 337–43. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Troutt, H.F., and B.I. Osburn. “Meat from Dairy Cows: Possible Microbiological Hazards and Risks.” ”Revue Scientifique et Technique de l’OIE” 16, no. 2 (August 1, 1997): 405–14. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- “Managing Cow Lactation Cycles.” Www.thecattlesite.com, 18 May 2015, www.thecattlesite.com/articles/4248/managing-cow-lactation-cycles. Accessed 7 Jan. 2025. ↩︎
- “Life of a Dairy Cow | Animal Place.” Animal Place, 9 May 2019, animalplace.org/life-dairy-cow/. Accessed 7 Jan. 2025. ↩︎
- PETA Investigations. “Cows Forced to Live in Their Own Waste at Dairy Farm.” Accessed November 29, 2019. ↩︎
- Neglected, Lame Cows Suffer in Pain and Filth—Just for Cheese. YouTube Video. PETA, June 28, 2019 ↩︎
- PETA Investigations. “Video Reveals That Neglected, Lame Cows Suffer in Pain and Filth at Pennsylvania Dairy—Just for Cheese.” Accessed November 29, 2019. ↩︎
- Blezinger, Stephen. “The Use and Future of Animal Proteins in Dairy Cow Diets.” Progressive Dairy. Accessed November 29, 2019. ↩︎
- Slaughter Age vs Natural Lifespan, December 21, 2020 ↩︎
- “How Do You Milk a Cow?” Dairy Good: National Dairy Council Content Partner, September 14, 2016, Accessed November 29, 2019. ↩︎
- Neijenhuis, F. “The Effects of Machine Milking on Teat Condition.” ICAR Technical Series. Research Institute for Animal Husbandry. November 29, 2019. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Neijenhuis, F. “The Effects of Machine Milking on Teat Condition.” ICAR Technical Series. Research Institute for Animal Husbandry. November 29, 2019. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Webster, John. Animal Welfare. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2000. 88, 139-140. ↩︎
- Webster, John. Animal Welfare. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2000. 88, 139-140. ↩︎
- Marchant-Forde, Jeremy N., Ruth M. Marchant-Forde, and Daniel M. Weary. “Responses of Dairy Cows and Calves to Each Other’s Vocalisations after Early Separation.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 78, no. 1 (August 2002): 19–28. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Heartbreaking Footage Shows Baby Cows Stolen from Their Mothers. Mercy for Animals, 2019. Accessed 3 December 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dZQ3sl0xNC4&feature=youtu.be. ↩︎
- Wagner, Kathrin, Daniel Seitner, Kerstin Barth, Rupert Palme, Andreas Futschik, and Susanne Waiblinger. “Effects of Mother versus Artificial Rearing during the First 12 Weeks of Life on Challenge Responses of Dairy Cows.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 164 (March 2015): 1–11. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Wagner, Kathrin, Daniel Seitner, Kerstin Barth, Rupert Palme, Andreas Futschik, and Susanne Waiblinger. “Effects of Mother versus Artificial Rearing during the First 12 Weeks of Life on Challenge Responses of Dairy Cows.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 164 (March 2015): 1–11. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- The Beef Site. “Artificial Insemination for Beef Cattle.” Accessed November 29, 2019. ↩︎
- “Castration of Calves.” Accessed November 19, 2019. ↩︎
- Mandel, Roi, Margret L. Wenker, Kees van Reenen, Nina M. Keil, and Edna Hillmann. “Can Access to an Automated Grooming Brush and/or a Mirror Reduce Stress of Dairy Cows Kept in Social Isolation?” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 211 (February 2019): 1–8. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Mandel, Roi, Margret L. Wenker, Kees van Reenen, Nina M. Keil, and Edna Hillmann. “Can Access to an Automated Grooming Brush and/or a Mirror Reduce Stress of Dairy Cows Kept in Social Isolation?” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 211 (February 2019): 1–8. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- “Heifer so Lonely: How Cows Have Best Friends and Get Stressed When They Are Separated.” Mail Online, July 4, 2011. Accessed December 3, 2019 ↩︎
- Rajala-Schultz, Gustavo M. Schuenemann, Santiago Bas, Armando Hoet, Eric Gordon, Donald Sanders, Klibs N. Galvão and Päivi. “A.I. Cover Sheaths Improved Fertility in Lactating Dairy Cows.” Progressive Dairy. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Beef Magazine. “Artificial Insemination Can Get You There,” February 1, 2000. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Thibier, M, and H.-G Wagner. “World Statistics for Artificial Insemination in Cattle.” ”Livestock Production Science” 74, no. 2 (March 2002): 203–12 ↩︎
- The Beef Site. “Artificial Insemination for Beef Cattle.” Accessed November 29, 2019. ↩︎
- “Castration of Calves.” Accessed November 19, 2019. ↩︎
- Colorado State Animal Science, “Semen Collection from Bulls.” September 2, 2002. ↩︎
- Society for Theriogenology, Bull Breeding Soundness Examination, September 25, 2012 ↩︎
- Colorado State Animal Science, “Semen Collection from Bulls.” September 2, 2002. ↩︎
- Society for Theriogenology, Bull Breeding Soundness Examination, September 25, 2012 ↩︎
- Colorado State Animal Science, “Semen Collection from Bulls.” September 2, 2002. ↩︎
- Colorado State Animal Science, “Semen Collection from Bulls.” September 2, 2002. ↩︎
- Chenoweth, P. J., and H. G. Osborne. “BREED DIFFERENCES IN THE RESPONSE OF YOUNG BEEF BULLS TO ELECTRO-EJACULATION.” Australian Veterinary Journal 54, no. 7 (July 1978): 333–37. Accessed December 3 2019. ↩︎
- “Veal from Farm to Table.” Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Levitt, Tom. “Dairy’s ‘Dirty Secret’: It’s Still Cheaper to Kill Male Calves than to Rear Them.” The Guardian, March 26, 2018, sec. Environment. Accessed December 3, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/mar/26/dairy-dirty-secret-its-still-cheaper-to-kill-male-calves-than-to-rear-them. ↩︎
- Kiley-Worthington, M. “The Behavior of Confined Calves Raised for Veal: Are These Animals Distressed?” International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 4, no. 3 (1983): 198–213. ↩︎
- Webster, AJF. “Control of Infectious Disease in Housed Veal Calves.” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Veal Calf Production, no. 52 (March 1990): 103–12. ↩︎
- Statista. “U.S. Veal Consumption per Capita, 2028.” Accessed December 3, 2019. https://www.statista.com/statistics/183541/per-capita-consumption-of-veal-in-the-us/. ↩︎
- Philip Gruber. “Veal Still Holds Possibilities Despite Challenges.” Lancaster Farming. Accessed November 22, 2019. ↩︎
- Levitt, Tom. “Dairy’s ‘Dirty Secret’: It’s Still Cheaper to Kill Male Calves than to Rear Them.” The Guardian, March 26, 2018, sec. Environment. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Manufacturing.net. “USDA, McDonald’s Suspend Slaughterhouse Buys,” August 23, 2012. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- PETA Investigations. “Video Reveals That Neglected, Lame Cows Suffer in Pain and Filth at Pennsylvania Dairy—Just for Cheese.” Accessed November 29, 2019. ↩︎
- LII / Legal Information Institute. “49 U.S. Code § 80502 – Transportation of Animals.” Accessed November 29, 2019. ↩︎
- PETA. “Cow Transport and Slaughter,” June 22, 2010. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- “Milk Quality, Milking Procedures, and Mastitis on U.S. Dairies, 2014.” Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, September 2016. Accessed December 3, 2019. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/nahms/dairy/downloads/dairy14/Dairy14_dr_Mastitis.pdf. ↩︎
- Siivonen, Jutta, Suvi Taponen, Mari Hovinen, Matti Pastell, B. Joop Lensink, Satu Pyörälä, and Laura Hänninen. “Impact of Acute Clinical Mastitis on Cow Behaviour.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 132, no. 3–4 (July 2011): 101–6. Accessed December 3, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2011.04.005. ↩︎
- Constable, Peter D. “Overview of Bovine Secondary Recumbency – Musculoskeletal System.” Veterinary Manual. Accessed November 22, 2019. ↩︎
- Constable, Peter D. “Overview of Bovine Secondary Recumbency – Musculoskeletal System.” Veterinary Manual. Accessed November 22, 2019. ↩︎
- Gorden, Patrick J. “Diagnosing and Treating Downer Cattle (Proceedings).” DVM 360, Oct. 2011. Accessed 7 Jan. 2025. ↩︎
- Slaughterhouse Investigation: Cruel and Unhealthy Practices. Humane Society of the United States, Youtube, 2008. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- “Cattle abuse wasn’t rare occurrence“, ABC News ↩︎
- Pryce, J. E., R. F. Veerkamp, R. Thompson, W. G. Hill, and G. Simm. “Genetic Aspects of Common Health Disorders and Measures of Fertility in Holstein Friesian Dairy Cattle.” Animal Science 65, no. 3 (December 1997): 353–60. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- Pryce, J. E., R. F. Veerkamp, R. Thompson, W. G. Hill, and G. Simm. “Genetic Aspects of Common Health Disorders and Measures of Fertility in Holstein Friesian Dairy Cattle.” Animal Science 65, no. 3 (December 1997): 353–60. Accessed December 3, 2019. ↩︎
- “US Factory Farming Estimates.” Sentience Institute. Accessed 2022-06-23 ↩︎
- The annual number was calculated by multiplying the daily number by 365. Roser, Max. “How Many Animals Get Slaughtered Every Day?” Our World in Data, 26 Sept. 2023. Accessed 2 Jan. 2025. ↩︎
- USDA. Livestock Slaughter 2023 Summary. United States Department of Agriculture. April 2024. Accessed January 7, 2025. ↩︎
- “Age of Animals Slaughtered.” Farm Transparency Project, October 12, 2017. ↩︎
- “Age of Animals Slaughtered.” Farm Transparency Project, October 12, 2017. ↩︎
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary—Cow, Accessed 2022-06-23. ↩︎
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary—Cattle, Accessed 2022-02-28. ↩︎
- “Cattle | Origin and Meaning of Cattle by Online Etymology Dictionary.” Accessed 2022-02-28. ↩︎
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary—Bovine, Accessed 2022-02-28 ↩︎
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary—Calf, Accessed 2022-06-23. ↩︎
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary—Livestock, Accessed 2022-02-28 ↩︎
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary—Heifer, Accessed 2022-02-28 ↩︎
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary—Steer, Accessed 2022-06-23 ↩︎
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary—Bull, Accessed 2022-06-23. ↩︎
- Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary—Ox, Accessed 2022-06-23. ↩︎
- Loftus, R. T., D. E. MacHugh, D. G. Bradley, P. M. Sharp, and P. Cunningham. “Evidence for Two Independent Domestications of Cattle.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91, no. 7 (March 29, 1994): 2757–61. Accessed 2019-12-03. ↩︎
- Orlando, Ludovic. “The First Aurochs Genome Reveals the Breeding History of British and European Cattle.” Genome Biology 16, no. 1 (December 2015): 225. Accessed 2019-12-03. ↩︎
- Zeder, Melinda A., ed. Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press, 2006, 317-318. ↩︎
- Orlando, Ludovic. “The First Aurochs Genome Reveals the Breeding History of British and European Cattle.” Genome Biology 16, no. 1 (December 2015): 225. Accessed 2019-12-03. ↩︎
